Use of Ink by Artists of the 20th–21st Centuries

Introduction

The use of ink in the art of the 20th–21st centuries is not merely a continuation of an ancient tradition but rather its radical reinterpretation, embedded within the broad context of modernist and postmodernist philosophical ideas. While in classical Eastern painting ink was an integral part of worldview, expressing Taoist and Confucian principles of harmony with nature and contemplation [Zhang, 2024], in Western art it often became a tool for deconstructing familiar forms and searching for new expressive means. Artists, moving away from mimetic depiction, turned to ink as a medium capable of conveying inner states, the dynamics of thought, or even critique of the very idea of art. This movement from representation to expression and concept is deeply rooted in philosophical shifts that questioned the objectivity of reality and the role of the artist as a mere imitator.

In this context, ink, with its apparent simplicity and monochrome nature, proved to be a surprisingly flexible material for exploring the boundaries of art. It allowed artists to experiment with line, spot, texture, creating works that could be both deeply emotional and strictly conceptual. From expressionist outbursts to minimalist gestures, from calligraphic meditation to digital imitations — ink constantly adapted to new artistic tasks, becoming a kind of litmus test for changing aesthetic paradigms. We will see how this material, originally associated with the Eastern philosophy of “non-action” and merging with nature [Zhang, 2024], was reinterpreted in Western art and then returned to the global artistic dialogue, enriched with new meanings and techniques.

Detailed Exposition

Influence of Western Techniques on Traditional Chinese Ink Painting

Can a tradition deeply rooted in millennia accept new forms without losing its essence? This question is especially acute when considering Chinese ink painting, which developed in isolation for centuries, forming a unique aesthetic and philosophy. However, in the 20th century, with increased cultural exchange, Western artistic techniques began to penetrate China, posing a dilemma for artists: how to integrate the new without destroying the old?

Researchers Xinlun Yuan and Pisit Puntiens in their 2025 work “Cultural Integration in Chinese Ink Figure Painting” directly point to this turning point. They note that pioneers like Xu Beihong and Jiang Zhaohe in the early 20th century began introducing anatomical accuracy and spatial depiction from Western realistic drawing, striving to modernize artistic expression [Yuan et al., 2025]. This was not mere borrowing but an attempt to breathe new life into traditional forms, making them more relevant to a changing world.

However, as Yuan and Puntiens emphasize, such integration is not without risks. They found that “strategic integration of realistic sketching techniques, such as proportional modeling and dynamic gesture drawing, significantly enhances anatomical accuracy (+35%) and spatial complexity in ink figure painting” [Yuan et al., 2025]. This sounds like an unconditional advantage, but there is a downside. The authors warn that “a threshold of 30–40% realistic elements is critical for preserving traditional aesthetics such as brushstroke fluidity and symbolic minimalism” [Yuan et al., 2025]. In other words, excessive enthusiasm for Western realism may lead to the loss of the very “soul” of Chinese painting, its unique language.

Hao Zhang in his comparative study of Western oil painting forms and Chinese ink painting (2024) delves into the differences in materials and cultural contexts shaping these two art forms. He notes that “the primary tool for Chinese landscape ink painting is the brush, followed by water as a modifier” [Zhang, 2024, p. 45]. The brush typically has a rounded tip, and water, fluid and animated, combined with soft rice paper, creates a sense of smoothness and naturalness, allowing the artist to easily express emotions. Western oil painting, by contrast, uses oil on relatively coarse linen canvas, which, according to Zhang, “lacks the fluidity and agility of Chinese landscape painting and is relatively stiff and static” [Zhang, 2024, p. 45]. These fundamental differences in materials and tools inevitably affect expressive possibilities and, consequently, aesthetics.

Cultural background also plays a decisive role. Zhang points out that the core of Chinese culture is philosophical thought, which during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties gave rise to “Wei Jin Xuanxue” — a comprehensive study of Taoist and Confucian thought preaching “non-action” and “nature” [Zhang, 2024, p. 44]. This led to a pursuit of solitude, integration with nature, and search for spiritual freedom, reflected in landscape painting where mountains and rivers became objects of spiritual worship. Western art, originating in Ancient Greece, was permeated by rational thinking and a spirit of inquiry, where people “often looked at things skeptically, then thought rationally to explore and uncover the mysteries behind them” [Zhang, 2024, p. 44]. These deep philosophical divergences shape fundamentally different approaches to depicting the world.

N.V. Parfentyeva, N.P. Parfentyev, and Wang Yundong in their article on pictorialism in contemporary Chinese photography (2025) show how traditions of Chinese ink painting penetrate even new media. They analyze works of contemporary Chinese photographers presented at the “Contemporary China” exhibition and identify in them “traditions of Chinese ink painting and reliance on the achievements of pictorialism style creators — masters of the 20th century Lan Jingshan and Dong Hong-Oai.” This indicates that even when using a completely different tool — the camera — artists continue to draw inspiration from the aesthetics of ink, its monochrome harmony, and unique beauty. The question is not whether to integrate Western techniques but how to do so without losing identity. Zhang emphasizes that “any painting style is based on handwriting as a carrier and uses various forms of expression to transform objects and convey spirit” [Zhang, 2024, p. 45]. When Chinese ink painting and Western oil painting meet in brushstrokes, ink strokes, as an important means and medium for emotional expression, represent not only subtle imprints of the artist’s soul but also the collective interest of the ancient national cultural spirit. This suggests that true value lies not in blind copying but in seeking a new synthesis that enriches both traditions.

Ultimately, the influence of Western techniques on traditional Chinese ink painting is a story not of replacement but of dialogue. It is a constant search for balance between innovation and preservation of cultural heritage, where every new stroke or compositional decision becomes part of a broader conversation about what it means to be an artist in a globalized world. And it is this dialogue, this tension between old and new, that shapes the unique role of ink in cultural identity.

The Role of Ink in Shaping Cultural Identity

In the previous section, we discussed how Western techniques influenced traditional Chinese ink painting, but this process was not one-sided. Ink, as a medium, did not merely adapt to new trends; it itself is a powerful factor in forming and preserving cultural identity, especially in the Eastern context. It is not just ink on paper but a whole philosophy, a way of thinking and expression deeply rooted in national consciousness.

Ink in China is more than just an artistic material; it acts as a foundation of cultural identity and even as a tool of “soft power.” Parfentyeva, Parfentyev, and Wang Yundong (2025) in their study of pictorialism in contemporary Chinese photography emphasize that this style, deeply rooted in ink painting traditions, becomes a defining factor in shaping cultural identity. They note that “modern monochrome works, filled with unique beauty and harmony, are introduced into scientific circulation for the first time to reveal traditions of Chinese ink painting.” This shows that even in new media such as photography, the aesthetics of ink continue to live and develop, becoming a hallmark of national culture.

The authors also point out that these works, due to their high artistic value, can act as “a defining factor in integration during the period of economic modernization and democratization of contemporary China, promoting its unique artistic achievements worldwide” [Parfentyeva et al., 2025]. Ink thus becomes not just an element of art but a powerful cultural message that China broadcasts on the world stage. It is not merely a demonstration of skill but an assertion of uniqueness and historical continuity.

Zhang (2024) develops this idea, arguing that ink painting strokes, being “an important means and medium for emotional expression and artistic self-expression of Chinese oil painters,” carry not only “subtle imprints of the main soul of the artist but also the collective interest of the ancient national cultural spirit and the greatness of a country moving toward prosperity.” Here we see how ink becomes a carrier of national spirit, a way to express collective feelings and aspirations. It connects individual creativity with a broad cultural context, making the artist part of a large historical tradition.

Interestingly, Zhang (2024) draws parallels between Chinese ink painting and Western oil painting, noting that the Chinese tradition of landscape ink painting spans over 2000 years, while Western oil painting became an independent art form only in the 16th century. This emphasizes the deep historical roots of ink and its role in forming a unique worldview. Chinese ink painting, he says, “emphasizes the integration of man and landscape, and the unity of heaven and humanity is reflected in every domain of Chinese art” [Zhang, 2024]. It is not merely a depiction of nature but a philosophical reflection on man’s place in the world, which profoundly distinguishes it from Western approaches.

Cultural connotations of ink also differ significantly from Western traditions. Zhang (2024) notes that Chinese ink painting is “an important component of traditional Chinese culture, reflecting aesthetic quests and philosophical thinking of ancient Chinese literati.” Meanwhile, Western oil painting “embodies aesthetic concepts and artistic traditions of Western culture, emphasizing scientific spirit and rational thinking.” This difference in approaches to art, where ink becomes a tool for cultivating character and achieving harmony with nature rather than merely a means of realistic depiction.

Wang Yundong (2025) also points out that contemporary Chinese photographers working in the pictorialism style have managed to “recreate the originality of ancient Chinese national art at a new level.” This is not mere copying of old forms but their reinterpretation and adaptation to modern realities, allowing ink to remain relevant and significant for shaping cultural identity in the 21st century. The use of a special artistic language, aesthetic taste, and tact gives “new semantic depth to the style of Chinese pictorialism” [Parfentyeva et al., 2025].

Even amid globalization and active cultural interaction, ink retains its uniqueness. Fan Wenwei (2023) in his study of the fusion of East and West in Chinese painting through the formal language of Lin Fengmian’s paintings notes that although the concept of East-West integration has long been implemented in local oil painting and contemporary ink painting, “the overall standard and artistic value of Chinese oil painting and contemporary ink painting still need improvement.” This indicates that despite attempts at synthesis, ink continues to be a measure of authenticity and depth, requiring special understanding and mastery.

Shan Yanlin (2020) also emphasizes that “many inspirations can be drawn from traditional Chinese painting art for contemporary visual communication design.” She explores the features of the visual language of traditional ink elements in the internet environment, striving to “further clarify the hidden beauty of traditional ink art and the simple beauty of brushstrokes and ink.” This demonstrates how a traditional medium like ink can be reinterpreted and applied in entirely new contexts while retaining its cultural significance. Ink is not just a material but a living organism that evolves while preserving its genetic memory. It is not only a means of artistic expression but a powerful symbol that helps Chinese society maintain its uniqueness and transmit it to the world. The open question remains how this deeply culturally rooted medium interacts with entirely different artistic traditions such as Western oil painting and what new meanings arise at the intersection of these worlds.

Comparison of Chinese Ink and Western Oil Painting

If in the previous section we discussed how ink shapes cultural identity, now the question inevitably arises about its place in the broader context of world art. How does Chinese ink relate to other dominant artistic traditions, for example, Western oil painting? This is not merely a question of materials but of deep philosophical, aesthetic, and cultural differences that define the very perception of art. Hao Zhang argues that “a comparative study of the forms of Chinese ink painting and Western oil painting is the focus and innovation of this article, which also gives this work certain academic value and practical significance” [Zhang, 2024]. Indeed, such a comparison allows us to identify unique features of each tradition and understand why they developed along such different trajectories.

The key difference begins with the objects depicted. Western oil painting, as Zhang Hao notes, “is very diverse, mainly focusing on people and landscapes, not just expressing ‘pure’ natural landscapes” [Zhang, 2024]. We see portraits, historical scenes, still lifes where humans are often the central figure or measure of all things. Chinese landscape ink painting, although it may include human figures, “mainly depicts ‘pure’ natural landscapes, followed by borderline depictions between people and their living environment” [Zhang, 2024]. This difference reflects fundamentally different worldviews: Western art often explores human relationships with nature, while Chinese art seeks to express “an appreciation of the beauty of nature” [Zhang, 2024], where man is more a contemplator than a dominant.

Differences in expressive means are also striking. Chinese landscape ink painting “does not overly depict object details. Instead, it takes the author’s subjective ideas as a starting point, lines as the main expressive means, and uses a formulaic language to express objects” [Zhang, 2024]. Here, the emphasis is not on precise external appearance but on conveying the essence, spirit of the object through concise lines and strokes. Western oil painting, by contrast, “depicts objects based on objective reality, emphasizing both general understanding and realistic details, paying special attention to perspective relationships and specific temporal and spatial relations of objects” [Zhang, 2024]. This striving for realism, for the illusion of three-dimensional space, for accurate transmission of light and shadow has been a cornerstone of Western painting since the Renaissance.

Aesthetic principles also diverge. Chinese ink painting “focuses more on creating a beautiful artistic concept that blends emotions and landscape” [Zhang, 2024]. The artist must “learn from outside and find the source of his heart,” integrating feelings and understanding of nature with life experience. This reflects the Chinese philosophical idea of “harmony between heaven and man” [Zhang, 2024]. The goal is not just to depict the landscape but to convey its inner energy, qi, and evoke deep emotional and spiritual experience in the viewer. Western oil painting, according to Zhang Hao, aims to “create realistic and believable landscapes, allowing viewers to experience certain spiritual content or emotional ideals through immersive aesthetic experience” [Zhang, 2024]. Here the emphasis is on visual reality, on creating a convincing illusion that immerses the viewer in the depicted world.

Compositional approaches also demonstrate deep differences. Western oil painting, especially in landscapes, “mainly focuses on focal perspective, pursuing realistic and believable landscape representation, emphasizing viewpoints, space, perspective, as well as the sense of light and color in the environment” [Zhang, 2024]. This creates a sense of depth and order where all elements are subordinated to a single vanishing point. Chinese ink painting, by contrast, uses “dispersed composition as the main compositional form, emphasizing the importance of ‘observing the large from the small’” [Zhang, 2024]. This allows the artist to depict different parts of the landscape from various viewpoints, creating a more dynamic and multidimensional space that the viewer must explore rather than simply perceive from a fixed position.

Materials and techniques, of course, play a decisive role in shaping these differences. Traditional materials of Chinese ink painting — rice paper, brushes, and ink — “emphasize the expression of lines and ink shades and pursue an artistic concept that combines form and spirit” [Zhang, 2024]. The limited palette of ink requires the artist’s skill in conveying nuances through gradations of gray, through the play of light and shadow created by a single color. Western oil painting, using canvases, oil paints, and brushes, “more accurately depicts layering of details and colors, pursuing realistic and precise images” [Zhang, 2024]. The richness of the color palette and the possibility of multilayer painting allow achieving incredible depth and realism.

Another important difference lies in the use of empty space. Chinese landscape ink painting “emphasizes leaving empty space, giving people infinite imagination” [Zhang, 2024]. This empty space is not simply an unfilled area; it actively participates in the composition, creating a sense of air, mist, infinity, and allowing the viewer to imagine details. Western oil painting, by contrast, “almost does not use the technique of leaving empty space, relying on pigment control” [Zhang, 2024]. Every part of the canvas is usually filled with color and form, striving for complete and exhaustive transmission of the depicted world.

Nevertheless, despite these deep differences, there are points of contact. Zhang Hao notes that both Chinese and Western landscapes “are based on human habitat and nature, and artists use empathy techniques to express their emotions” [Zhang, 2024]. Artists of both traditions strive to “integrate ideas and souls into nature, expressing their inner world through mountains, rivers, and trees” [Zhang, 2024]. An example is Van Gogh, whose landscapes such as “Starry Night” “convey his thoughts on human nature, the world, the universe, and eternity through real vibration and flickering colors” [Zhang, 2024]. In this sense, both Chinese ink and Western oil can serve as means to express deep internal experiences of the artist, though they do so differently.

In recent decades, especially in the context of modernism and postmodernism, there is growing interest in hybrid practices. Artists begin mixing elements of various traditions, creating innovative forms. Zhao Jiewen and Amos Mohd Fadli [Jiewen et al., 2025] emphasize that their research aims at “comparing these media in classical and contemporary works, helping artists choose suitable media, inspiring innovative blends, and ultimately benefiting art historical research.” This opens the way to new expressive possibilities where Western artists may borrow the conciseness and philosophy of empty space from Chinese ink, and Chinese artists may experiment with the richness of color and realism of Western oil painting. The comparison of Chinese ink and Western oil painting reveals not only contrasts in materials and techniques but also deep divergences in philosophical foundations, aesthetic principles, and cultural values. However, it is precisely these differences that create fertile ground for dialogue and mutual enrichment, which is especially relevant in contemporary art. Understanding these fundamental divergences allows us to appreciate the uniqueness of each tradition more deeply and anticipate how they may interact in the future, forming new visual orders.

Assessment of Visual Order in Chinese Ink Painting

In the previous section, we discussed fundamental differences between Chinese ink painting and Western oil painting, emphasizing their unique approaches to depicting reality and expressing emotions. Now it is worth delving into how these differences manifest in the formation of visual order, which many researchers consider a key factor in aesthetic judgment in art [Fan et al., 2020]. Visual order in Chinese ink painting is not just composition; it is a complex system reflecting deep philosophical and cultural attitudes that distinguish it from Western traditions.

Chinese ink painting, unlike Western painting, often strives not for literal reproduction of the visible world but for conveying its essence, spirit. This is achieved through specific use of line, spot, empty space, and tonal transitions. Hao Zhang notes that “Chinese landscape ink painting emphasizes expression of emotions and a sense of reverence and feelings toward nature, with the main idea of ‘learning from nature’” [Zhang, 2024]. This approach forms a visual order that may seem less structured from a Western perspective but actually possesses its own internal logic and harmony.

One of the most vivid manifestations of this is the emphasis on “empty space” (留白, liúbái), which plays no less an important role than depicted elements. Zhang emphasizes that “Chinese landscape ink painting stresses leaving empty space” [Zhang, 2024]. This is not just unfilled canvas areas but an active compositional element creating a sense of depth, air, infinity, and allowing the viewer to imagine and engage in the image creation process. In Western painting, especially classical, empty space is often perceived as incompleteness or background, whereas in Chinese tradition it becomes a meaning-forming component, part of the visual order guiding the viewer’s gaze and thoughts.

However, despite deep roots in tradition, Chinese ink painting has not remained unchanged. In the early 20th century, under Western art influence, a process of integrating new techniques and approaches began. Xinlun Yuan and Pisit Puntiens explore how “strategic integration of realistic sketching techniques, such as proportional modeling and dynamic gesture drawing, significantly enhances anatomical accuracy (+35%) and spatial complexity in ink painting” [Yuan et al., 2025]. This led to hybrid forms where traditional visual order encountered new elements. For example, in works using Western perspectives, “ethnic landscapes achieved an average score of 4.63/5 (SD=0.13) for spatial hierarchy using Western perspective, significantly higher than traditional works with dispersed perspective (3.8/5, p<0.05)” [Yuan et al., 2025].

Nevertheless, such integration was not always painless. Yuan and Puntiens note that “excessive reliance on chiaroscuro reduced perception of ‘ink rhyme’ (墨韵), with works including >50% realistic techniques scoring 3.37/5 (SD=0.48) on traditional brushstroke heritage” [Yuan et al., 2025]. This indicates that visual order in Chinese ink painting is closely linked to certain aesthetic principles such as “ink rhyme” — a special fluidity and expressiveness of the stroke that can be lost with excessive enthusiasm for Western realism. Visual order in Chinese ink painting is not merely a set of compositional rules but a deeply rooted system reflecting philosophy, culture, and aesthetic values. It is formed through interaction of empty space, line, tone, and specific brushstroke techniques. Attempts to integrate Western realistic techniques, while improving anatomical accuracy and spatial depth, risk disrupting this fragile harmony and leading to loss of the unique “ink rhyme” integral to traditional aesthetics [Yuan et al., 2025]. The open question remains how to find a balance between innovation and preservation of this unique aesthetic so that visual order remains recognizable yet evolves.

Contemporary Drawing Practices and Their Overview

If in the previous section we discussed visual order and its assessment in traditional Chinese ink painting, it is logical now to move to how this order is transformed and reinterpreted in contemporary practices. Artists of the 20th and 21st centuries do not merely inherit traditions but actively rework them, entering into dialogue with Western techniques and concepts. This process is not always linear and often leads to hybrid forms where ink ceases to be just a material, becoming part of a broader artistic statement.

Contemporary ink drawing practices demonstrate remarkable diversity, going beyond traditional notions. Artists actively explore the possibilities of this medium, integrating it into new contexts and combining it with other techniques. For example, Smith notes that in contemporary art there is a “blurring of boundaries,” where hybrid practices become the norm. This means ink can appear not only on rice paper but also on canvas, in installations, performances, and even digital art.

One key aspect of contemporary practices is the integration of realistic sketching techniques into traditional Chinese ink painting, thoroughly studied by Yuan and Puntiens [Yuan et al., 2025]. They note that the historical development of Chinese ink painting, from expressive realism of the Song dynasty to cross-cultural experiments of the 20th century, created fertile ground for such fusions. Their research, including analysis of works by Xu Beihong and Jiang Zhaohe, shows how artists successfully integrate Western methods while preserving aesthetic harmony and ink’s uniqueness. For example, in Xu Beihong’s “Worker” or Jiang Zhaohe’s “Refugees,” one can see how academic sketching based on anatomical knowledge combines with the dynamism and expressiveness of ink.

This integration process is not limited to realistic sketching. Fan [Fan, 2023], in his analysis of Lin Fengmian’s work, emphasizes that the artist sought a “fusion of East and West,” leading to the creation of a new artistic language. Lin Fengmian, according to Fan, “innovatively introduced principles, techniques, and colors of ‘shade,’ ‘light and shadow,’ ‘color composition,’ ‘tone,’ and ‘perspective’” [Fan, 2023]. He did not merely copy Western techniques but reinterpreted them through the prism of Chinese painting, creating works that are simultaneously deeply national and universal. His experiments with color, despite using ink, demonstrate a striving for “light colors” and a “transparent and strong heart” [Fan, 2023], indicating a search for new expressive means.

Contemporary artists also actively use ink for conceptual statements. Wang, in his work “Gene Mutation: Ink Painting Toward Conceptualism,” explores how ink, traditionally associated with pictoriality, becomes a tool for expressing ideas. This is a departure from purely aesthetic perception of the material to its use as a carrier of meaning, characteristic of postmodernist tendencies. Ink, with its monochrome nature and ability to create both the finest lines and massive spots, is ideally suited for minimalist and conceptual works where the emphasis is on idea rather than virtuosity of execution.

The comparison of ink and oil painting conducted by Zhao and Amos also sheds light on contemporary practices. They note that artists have long preferred oil and ink due to their unique technical languages creating different visual effects. However, since the mid-20th century, artistic movements challenged traditional concepts, expanding the boundaries of art and allowing the use of diverse media. This led to artists freely choosing between these materials or even combining them, striving for new expressive possibilities. For example, Yang analyzes imagery and abstract trends in contemporary Chinese oil painting, indirectly indicating the influence of ink on other media as well as the reverse influence of Western techniques on traditional materials.

Interestingly, even amid such diversity, traditional aspects of ink, such as calligraphy, continue to exert influence. Zhu studies brush and ink characteristics in Chinese painting and their contemporary legacy, emphasizing that even in the most avant-garde works one can find echoes of ancient techniques and philosophy. This is not merely a tribute to tradition but a conscious use of its potential to create new forms and meanings. The calligraphic line, with its rhythm and plasticity, becomes the basis for many contemporary abstract and expressive works.

Contemporary ink drawing practices are not just an evolution but rather a revolution where a material once strictly regulated by traditions gains new freedom. Artists are not afraid to experiment, mix, transform, creating works simultaneously rooted in the past and oriented toward the future. However, how successful these experiments are in the long term and whether the unique identity of ink is lost remains an open question requiring critical reflection.

Criticism and Limitations

The study of ink use by artists of the 20th–21st centuries, despite its breadth, faces several methodological and conceptual limitations that must be considered when interpreting conclusions. First, a significant part of the analysis focuses on Chinese ink painting and its interaction with Western techniques, which, while important, may create an impression of excessive Eastern orientation. This narrows the perspective since ink was actively used in Western art as well, for example, in graphics, illustration, and comics, where its application had unique features and was not always directly related to Eastern influences [Fay, 2008]. Without deeper consideration of these Western contexts, we risk underestimating the diversity of ink use and its role in various artistic traditions.

Second, the emphasis on “cultural identity” and “national spirit” in Chinese studies [Parfentyeva et al., 2025] may lead to some idealization or even nationalist interpretation of ink’s role. While ink is undoubtedly an integral part of Chinese culture, such an approach may overlook individual artistic experiments that go beyond national narratives. For example, when artists like Lin Fengmian sought a “fusion of East and West” [Fan, 2023], their motivation might have been not only preserving national identity but also searching for universal artistic forms transcending cultural barriers. Excessive focus on identity may obscure broader aesthetic and philosophical questions that artists explored through ink.

Finally, quantitative assessments such as the “threshold of 30–40% realistic elements” for preserving traditional aesthetics [Yuan et al., 2025], while seemingly precise, may be problematic in art historical analysis. Art is not a science, and attempts to measure “aesthetic preservation” in percentages may oversimplify complex processes of artistic perception and creativity. What exactly does “ink rhyme” (墨韵) mean quantitatively, and how can it be measured? Such metrics, while useful for systematization, may not capture subtle nuances of artistic expression and the subjectivity of aesthetic experience. This raises the question of the applicability of strict scientific methods to art analysis, where intuition and interpretation play no less a role than objective data.

Conclusions

• Ink in the 20th–21st centuries ceased to be exclusively a traditional material, becoming a tool for modernist and postmodernist experiments, expanding its expressive possibilities.
• Integration of Western realistic techniques into traditional Chinese ink painting, as shown in the works of Yuan and Puntiens [Yuan et al., 2025], can significantly enhance anatomical accuracy but requires caution to preserve the unique aesthetic of “ink rhyme.”
• Ink plays a key role in shaping cultural identity, especially in Chinese art, where it acts as a carrier of national spirit and a means of “soft power,” penetrating even new media such as photography [Parfentyeva et al., 2025].
• Comparison of Chinese ink and Western oil painting reveals fundamental differences in philosophical foundations, aesthetic principles, and compositional approaches, creating fertile ground for hybrid practices and innovative blends [Zhang, 2024].
• Visual order in Chinese ink painting, characterized by active use of empty space and specific brushstroke techniques, is a deeply rooted system reflecting cultural and philosophical values, and its preservation is a challenge amid modernization.
• Contemporary artists actively explore ink in various contexts, from conceptual statements to digital imitations, demonstrating its universality and adaptability to changing artistic paradigms.
• How to find the optimal balance between preserving traditional ink aesthetics and adapting it to new artistic and technological challenges of the 21st century to avoid losing the unique identity of the material remains an open question.